Less priority, on the other hand, has been given to the role of transactional leadership on work innovation. Transactional leadership is known as the required precondition for effective leadership. Managerial implications and value add: The cultural divide within the context of leadership styles and effectiveness is small in South Africa, and the results supports the notion that organisations and leaders should set aside culturally based stereotypes when engaging in leadership issues.

Thus, those African and Western cultural backgrounds act similarly, and the outcomes (effectiveness) was comparable. Main findings: The result of this study suggest that leaders in South Africa are perceived to behave similarly in terms of their leadership styles and the effectiveness thereof. Mean scores on leadership styles and leadership effectiveness were calculated per race and mean score differences were tested. Leadership styles and leader effectiveness was measured, and race was used as a proxy to cultural background. Research approach and method: A cross-sectional survey was collected from 1140 respondents across 19 organisations. This research was motivated by the need to assess the extent of this divide and the impact thereof on perceived effectiveness. Motivation for the study: South Africa is sometimes presented as country divided across cultural lines.

Research purpose: The goal of the research was to assess whether the leadership styles of South African leaders differ based on cultural background and whether the effectiveness of these leadership styles is judged differently by subordinates. Orientation: While some deem business leadership practices as universal, others judge them to be specific to a cultural context, arguing that certain leadership styles are specific to, for example, those from an African or a Western cultural background.

Theories of leadership